Electromagnetic wave resistivity tool having a tilted antenna for determining the horizontal and vertical resistivities and relative dip angle in anisotropic earth formations

ABSTRACT

This invention is directed to a downhole method and apparatus for simultaneously determining the horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity, and relative dip angle for anisotropic earth formations. The present invention accomplishes this objective by using an antenna configuration in which a transmitter antenna and a receiver antenna are oriented in non-parallel planes such that the vertical resistivity and the relative dip angle are decoupled. Preferably, either the transmitter or the receiver is mounted in a conventional orientation in a first plane that is normal to the tool axis, and the other antenna is mounted in a second plane that is not parallel to the first plane. Although this invention is primarily intended for MWD or LWD applications, this invention is also applicable to wireline and possibly other applications.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/745,822, filed May 8, 2007 now abandoned, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/457,709, filed on Jul. 14, 2006 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,265,552, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/198,066, filed on Aug. 5, 2005 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,138,803, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/616,429, filed on Jul. 9, 2003 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,019,528, which in turn is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/255,048, filed on Sep. 25, 2002 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,911,824, which in turn is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/615,501, filed on Jul. 13, 2000 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,476,609, which in turn is a continuation-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/238,832 filed Jan. 28, 1999now U.S. Pat. No. 6,163,155, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The present application relates to concurrently-filed U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/127,672, entitled “Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity Tool Having A Tilted Antenna for Geosteering Within A Desired Payzone” by inventor Michael Bittar.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

This invention relates generally to a method and apparatus for determining the horizontal and vertical resistivities and the relative dip angle of a borehole in an electrically anisotropic earth formation. More specifically, this invention relates to an electromagnetic wave induction technique for measuring resistivity using a tool having an antenna that is disposed within a plane which is inclined with respect to a plane that is normal to the axis of the tool.

2. Description of the Related Art

In the field of petroleum well drilling and logging, electromagnetic wave resistivity sensors are frequently used to provide an indication of the electrical resistivity of rock formations surrounding an earth borehole. Such information regarding resistivity is useful in ascertaining the presence or absence of hydrocarbons. A typical electromagnetic wave resistivity tool comprises a transmitter antenna and a pair of receiver antennas located at different distances from the transmitter antenna along the axis of the tool. The transmitter antenna is used to transmit electromagnetic waves into the surrounding formation. In turn, the magnetic field in the formation induces an electrical voltage in each receiver antenna. Due to geometric spreading and absorption by the surrounding earth formation, the induced voltages in the two receiving antennas have different phases and amplitudes. Experiments have shown that the phase difference (Φ) and amplitude ratio (attenuation, A) of the induced voltages in the receiver antennas are indicative of the resistivity of the formation. The point in the formation (as defined by a radial distance from the tool axis) to which such a resistivity measurement pertains is a function of the frequency of the transmitter and the distance from the transmitter to the mid-point between the two receivers. Thus, one may achieve multiple radial depths of investigation of resistivity either by providing multiple transmitters at different distances from the receiver pair or by operating a single transmitter at multiple frequencies.

If a formation is electrically isotropic, the resistivities measured at the various depths of investigation by such an electromagnetic wave resistivity tool will be the same. However, if the resistivities corresponding to the various depths of investigation are different, such differences indicate that the formation being measured is electrically anisotropic. In electrically anisotropic formations, the anisotropy is generally attributable to extremely fine layering during the sedimentary build-up of the formation. Hence, in a formation coordinate system oriented such that the x-y plane is parallel to the formation layers and the z axis is perpendicular to the formation layers, resistivities R_(x) and R_(y) in directions x and y, respectively, are the same, but resistivity R_(z) in the z direction is different from R_(x) and R_(y). Thus, the resistivity in a direction parallel to the plane of the formation (i.e., the x-y plane) is known as the horizontal resistivity, R_(h), and the resistivity in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the formation (i.e., the z direction) is known as the vertical resistivity, R_(v). The index of anisotropy, α, is defined as α=[R_(v)/R_(h)]^(1/2).

The relative dip angle, θ, is the angle between the borehole axis (tool axis) and the normal to the plane of the formation. If the axis of an electromagnetic wave resistivity tool is perpendicular to the plane of an anisotropic formation (i.e., θ=0°), both the phase shift and amplitude attenuation measurements reflect only the horizontal resistivity. However, if the axis of the tool is inclined with respect to the normal of the formation plane (i.e., for non-zero relative dip angle), the rock anisotropy affects the resistivity derived from phase shift measurements (“phase shift resistivity” or R_(Φ)) differently than it affects the resistivity derived from amplitude attenuation measurements (“amplitude attenuation resistivity” or R_(A)). For small relative dip angles (e.g., θ less than about 45°), the difference between phase shift and amplitude attenuation resistivities is relatively small. However, this difference becomes significant for relative dip angles greater than about 50°, and the difference is large for horizontal boreholes (i.e., θ=90°).

Before the present invention, practitioners in the art have used a number of techniques to determine the anisotropy of earth formations, most of which involve the use of coil antennas to measure resistivity. However, each of the existing techniques suffers from one or more disadvantages. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,980,643, issued Dec. 25, 1990 to Gianzero and Su, teaches the use of additional receiver coils oriented differently from (not co-axial with) conventional receiver coils to detect skew signals induced by skewness in the magnetic field pattern in the presence of asymmetrical formations. The axis of such additional receiver coils according to the '643 patent is preferably orthogonal to that of the conventional receiver coils, which are co-axial with the tool axis. However, such orthogonal coil (antenna) configurations are not generally considered practical for a measuring while drilling (MWD) or logging while drilling (LWD) tool because, if the coil is located in the interior of the tool, the presence of the coil necessitates a non-conventional mud flow path and decreases the mechanical strength of the tool. If, on the other hand, the additional coil is located on the exterior of the tool, the coil is susceptible to damage by formation cuttings in the return mud flow.

Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 5,329,448, issued Jul. 12, 1994 to Rosthal, discloses a method and apparatus for determining the horizontal and vertical resistivities of an earth formation using an iterative error minimization technique. However, the '448 patent, which discloses a conventional antenna configuration in which the transmitter and receiver coils are aligned co-axially with the tool, does not provide a way to determine the relative dip angle. Instead, the relative dip angle must be obtained from another measurement source or from prior knowledge of the formation. Likewise, U.S. Pat. No. 5,656,930, issued Aug. 12, 1997 to Hagiwara, discloses a method for determining the anisotropic properties of subterranean formations comprising thinly laminated sand/shale sequences using an induction logging tool. However, like the '448 patent, the method of the '930 patent requires the derivation of the relative dip angle from another measurement.

In a technical paper entitled “A New Method to Determine Horizontal Resistivity in Anisotropic Formations Without Prior Knowledge of Relative Dip,” 37th SPWLA 37th Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans, Jun. 16-19, 1996, Hagiwara discloses a method to determine the horizontal resistivity for deviated boreholes or dipping formations using two conventional induction-type resistivity measurements. However, Hagiwara's method does not provide the relative dip angle. To obtain the relative dip angle, the formation anisotropy must be known. Moreover, Hagiwara showed that, for conventional induction logging tools (in which the transmitter and receiver antennas are oriented co-axially with the tool), it is impossible to obtain all three parameters (horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity, and relative dip angle) simultaneously. The reason such a simultaneous solution is not possible using conventional induction logging tools is that, in the response of such tools, the vertical resistivity and the relative dip angle are coupled (i.e., they are not independent).

In European Patent Application No. 97118854.5 by Wu, published May 6, 1998, Wu discloses a method and apparatus for determining horizontal conductivity, vertical conductivity, and relative dip angle during a drilling operation. If the relative dip angle is unknown, Wu's technique involves the formulation of a relationship between the dielectric constants of the formation to the anisotropic conductivities of the formation. However, in the proof by Hagiwara mentioned above, the dielectric constants are assumed quantities, and their contribution to the phase shift resistivity is minimal. Therefore, even if the dielectric constants are known, the vertical resistivity and the relative dip angle are still coupled and do not allow for a simultaneous solution.

It would, therefore, be a significant advancement in the art to provide an improved method and apparatus for simultaneously determining the horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity, and relative dip angle in a MWD or LWD mode of operation.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, this invention is directed to an improved downhole method and apparatus for simultaneously determining the horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity, and relative dip angle for anisotropic earth formations. The present invention accomplishes this objective by using an antenna configuration in which a transmitter antenna and a receiver antenna are oriented in non-parallel planes such that the vertical resistivity and the relative dip angle are decoupled. Preferably, either the transmitter or the receiver is mounted in a conventional orientation in a first plane that is normal to the tool axis, and the other antenna is mounted in a second plane that is not parallel to the first plane. Although this invention is primarily intended for MWD or LWD applications, this invention is also applicable to wireline and possibly other applications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

This invention may best be understood by reference to the following drawings:

FIG. 1 is a schematic elevational view of an electromagnetic wave resistivity tool in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a schematic elevational view of a portion of the tool of FIG. 1 showing a block diagram of the circuitry used in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 3 is a schematic pulse diagram illustrating a time sequence of transmitter pulses of the tool of FIG. 1.

FIG. 4 is a schematic pulse diagram illustrating an alternative time sequence of transmitter pulses of the tool of FIG. 1.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram illustrating the antenna geometry of a conventional electromagnetic wave resistivity tool having a transmitter antenna and a receiver antenna, both of which are mounted to the tool in a plane that is orthogonal to the axis of the tool.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram illustrating the antenna geometry of an electromagnetic wave resistivity tool in accordance with the present invention having a transmitter antenna mounted to the tool in a plane that is orthogonal to the axis of the tool and a receiver antenna mounted to the tool in a plane that is not orthogonal to the axis of the tool.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram illustrating several possible transmitter/receiver antenna configurations in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 8 is a schematic block diagram illustrating the process of solving for horizontal conductivity, vertical conductivity, and relative dip angle in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 9 is a schematic perspective view of a Cartesian coordinate system in a sedimentary earth formation.

FIG. 10 is a graph of amplitude attenuation versus resistivity for a typical earth formation.

FIG. 11 is a graph of phase shift versus resistivity for a typical earth formation.

FIG. 12 is a graph of apparent resistivity versus relative dip angle for a typical earth formation using a single transmitter-receiver pair.

FIG. 13 is a graph of apparent resistivity versus relative dip angle for a typical earth formation using three transmitter-receiver pairs at a single frequency.

FIG. 14 is a graph of apparent resistivity versus relative dip angle for a typical earth formation using a single transmitter-receiver pair at three different frequencies.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

FIG. 1 illustrates a logging tool 10 in accordance with the present invention suspended in a borehole 12 within an earth formation 13 on a string of drill pipe 14. Drill string 14 includes one or more drill collars 11. Electromagnetic transmitters (antennas) 16, 18, and 20 (sometimes referred to herein as transmitters T₁, T₂, and T₃, respectively) are spaced along the length of logging tool 10 from electromagnetic receivers (antennas) 22 and 24 (sometimes referred to herein as R₁ and R₂, respectively). Preferably, transmitters 16, 18, 20 and receivers 22, 24 are mounted in recesses in tool 10 (as indicated in FIG. 2) and are covered with a non-conductive material (not shown), as is well known in the art. If a transmitter is designed to operate at more than one frequency, for example, f₁=2 MHz and f₂=1 MHz, each receiver may comprise a pair of coils, with one coil tuned to f₁ and one coil tuned to f₂. Additionally, if desired, each pair of such receiver coils may be located side by side around the periphery of tool 10 or may be concentrically stacked. Transmitters 16, 18, 20 and receivers 22, 24 may be fabricated in accordance with the teachings of U.S. Pat. No. 4,940,943, which is assigned to the assignee of the present invention and is incorporated herein by reference. It should be appreciated that the body of tool 10 is preferably made of steel in order to prevent tool 10 from becoming a weak link in the drill string 14. Typically, and in a manner well known in the art, one or more drill collars 11 are threadably connected to the lower end of logging tool 10, and a drill bit (not illustrated) is threadably connected to the lowest drill collar 11.

It should be appreciated that logging tool 10 also has the requisite electronic circuitry (illustrated in FIG. 2) for processing the signals received by receivers 22, 24 in accordance with the present invention, thereby converting the received signals into a log or another indication of formation resistivity. It should also be appreciated that the processed signals can be recorded within the electronics section of tool 10 or may be fed by a conventional telemetry system (not illustrated) to the surface for concurrent processing and readout at the surface. A typical telemetry system generates mud pulses that can be detected at the earth's surface and are indicative of the processed signals.

Referring to FIG. 2, well logging tool 10 is illustrated as having a plurality of transmitters T₁, T₂, T₃ . . . T_(n). Although a preferred embodiment comprises only three such transmitters (T₁, T₂ and T₃), T_(n) is illustrated for purposes of showing that additional transmitters may be used, if desired. It should be appreciated that T₁, T₂, T₃ . . . T_(n) are successively further spaced from the receiver pair R₁ and R₂. The distance between the coils used for R₁ and R₂ is preferably six inches along the longitudinal axis of tool 10, but other receiver spacings may also be used. The distance between the receiver pair and the successively spaced transmitters will vary in some applications, as discussed hereinafter in greater detail. A preferred configuration contains a distance between T₁ and R₁/R₂ of 12 inches/18 inches; a distance between T₂ and R₁/R₂ of 24 inches/30 inches; and a distance between T₃ and R₁/R₂ of 36 inches/42 inches. In the foregoing sentence, it should be understood that the term “12 inches/18 inches,” for example, indicates that the distance between T₁ and R₁ is 12 inches and that the distance between T₁ and R₂ is 18 inches, based upon R₁ and R₂ being six inches apart. Such spacing configurations are sometimes referred to herein using an abbreviated expression of, for example, “12/18.”

Still referring to FIG. 2, a plurality of amplifiers A₁, A₂, A₃ . . . A_(n) are coupled to the transmitter coils T₁, T₂, T₃ . . . T_(n), respectively. The plurality of amplifiers, in turn, are driven, respectively, by oscillators F₁, F₂, F₃ . . . F_(n). The operating frequencies of the oscillators are preferably between about 0.5 MHz up to about 4 MHz. Because of power attenuation at greater depths of investigation, such as is the case with the longer spaced transmitters, the frequencies preferably conform to the relationship F₁≧F₂≧F₃≧ . . . F_(n). The oscillators F₁, F₂, F₃ . . . F_(n) are controlled by a transmitter enable circuitry 30, which interfaces with a microprocessor 32, which in turn interfaces with a communication interface circuit 34 and an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter 36. Communication interface circuit 34 is conventional and provides an interface between computers (not shown), an internal memory (not shown), a mud pulser (not shown), microprocessor 32, and operators or computers at the earth's surface (not shown) after the tool 10 is removed to the earth's surface.

The differential receivers R₁ and R₂ are respectively connected to amplifiers 40 and 42, which are connected, respectively, to mixer circuits 44 and 46. Oscillators F₁′, F₂′, F₃′ . . . F_(n)′ are coupled to an oscillator select circuit 48, the output of which is connected to the respective inputs of mixer circuits 44 and 46. Oscillator select circuit 48 receives its inputs from microprocessor 32.

The respective outputs of mixer circuits 44 and 46 drive low pass filters 50 and 52, respectively, the outputs of which drive amplitude measurement circuits 54 and 56, respectively. The outputs of amplitude measurement circuits 54 and 56 are connected to a multiplexer circuit 60. The outputs of low pass filter circuits 50 and 52 are also connected to the inputs of a relative phase measurement circuit 62, the output of which is fed into multiplexer 60.

In the operation of the device and circuitry illustrated in FIG. 2, it should be appreciated that it is desirable to process intermediate frequency signals rather than the nominal signals received by receiver pair R₁ and R₂. Accordingly, the oscillators F₁′, F₂′, F₃′ . . . F_(n)′ are selected to be very near the corresponding frequencies F₁, F₂, F₃ . . . F_(n). For example, F_(n) can be set at a frequency of 1.998 MHz and thus provide an intermediate frequency coming out of mixer circuit 44 or 46 of 0.002 MHz (2 KHz). In a similar fashion, F₂′ and F₃′ can be set at 1.998 MHz and 0.998 MHz, respectively. Thus, the only signals that pass to low pass filters 50 and 52 will be the intermediate frequencies which are obtained by mixing the frequencies of F₁, F₂, F₃ . . . F_(n) with the frequencies F₁′, F₂′, F₃′ . . . F_(n)′, respectively. It should be appreciated that amplitude measurement circuit 54 provides a measure of the amplitude of the signal received by receiver R₁, whereas amplitude measurement circuit 56 measures the amplitude of the incoming signals received by receiver R₂. Similarly, relative phase measurement circuit 62 provides an indication of the phase difference between the signals received at receiver R₁ and the signals received at receiver R₂. As is well known in the art, the amplitude measurements (ratios, A) and the relative phase measurements (Φ) are both indicative of formation resistivity. Such measurements may be used to generate plots such as those shown in FIGS. 12-14 for a typical earth formation having a horizontal resistivity of 1 ohm-m and a vertical resistivity of 4 ohm-m. FIG. 12 depicts amplitude attenuation resistivity and phase shift resistivity as a function of relative dip angle using a single transmitter-receiver pair at a single frequency. FIG. 13 depicts phase shift resistivity as a function of relative dip angle using three transmitter-receiver pairs at a single frequency. FIG. 14 depicts phase shift resistivity as a function of relative dip angle using a single transmitter-receiver pair at three different frequencies.

It should also be appreciated that the frequencies F₁, F₂, F₃ . . . F_(n) could all be the same frequency except for the practical considerations of power loss in the formation due to the increased distance the signals have to travel through the formation. However, the conventional multiplexer circuitry 60 used with this system enables time separation between the sequential pulsing of the transmitters T₁, T₂, T₃ . . . T_(n). For example, as illustrated in FIG. 3, transmitter T₁ can be pulsed for one second, followed by no pulse for one second, followed by the pulsation of transmitter T₂ for one second, followed by no pulse for one second, followed by a pulsing of transmitter T₃ for one second, and so on. Quite obviously, the duration of the pulsing for each transmitter can be varied, as well as the duration of no pulsing in between, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 4. It should be appreciated that the expression “time separation” between pulses includes the preferred embodiment of having one pulse commence immediately with the termination of the immediately preceding pulse. As desired, the duration of the pulses controlling T₁ may vary from the duration of the pulses for T₂, which may vary from the duration of the pulses for transmitter T₃, and so on, in order to provide a signature of the received pulses at receivers R₁ and R₂ to better identify the transmitters and thus the depth of investigation for the particular pulses being received. Thus, measurements are made to different depths into the formation by activating each transmitter at a different time such that only one transmitter is active at any one time and by recording or telemetering the received phase difference and/or amplitudes (amplitude ratio) corresponding to each transmitted signal. Alternatively, the transmitters T₁, T₂, T₃ . . . T_(n) could all be operated at different frequencies and could be pulsed simultaneously, with the separation of signals being a function of frequency difference rather than time separation in accordance with a preferred embodiment of this invention. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that simultaneous transmission of all of the transmitter signals will usually require additional filters and processing circuitry to enable the instrument to properly discriminate between the different frequencies.

As discussed above, due to the nature of sedimentary formations, practitioners in the art use the term “horizontal” to denote the plane of the formation (i.e., the x-y plane of FIG. 9), and practitioners use the term “vertical” to denote the direction perpendicular to the plane of the formation (i.e., the z direction of FIG. 9, which is the direction of sedimentary build-up). For convenience in distinguishing between these terms of art and the ordinary directions associated with the earth's gravity, FIGS. 5 and 6 utilize the following terms: “true vertical” indicates the direction of the earth's gravity; “true horizontal” indicates the direction perpendicular to the earth's gravity; “formation vertical” indicates the direction perpendicular to the plane of the formation; and “formation horizontal” indicates the plane of the formation. In this description, the terms “horizontal” and “vertical” are intended to have the meanings associated with “formation horizontal” and “formation vertical,” respectively. In FIGS. 5 and 6, δ is the hole deviation angle (the angle between the borehole/tool axis and the true vertical), and ψ is the bed dip angle (the angle between the formation bed plane and the true horizontal).

Referring to FIG. 5, a transmitter coil (antenna) with a magnetic moment M_(T) can be considered as the superposition of a horizontal magnetic dipole (HMD) and a vertical magnetic dipole (VMD), with corresponding horizontal and vertical component magnetic moments M_(T) _(h) and M_(T) _(v) , respectively, which are given by the equations M_(T) _(h) =M_(T) sin θ=I_(t)A_(t) sin θ  [1] M_(T) _(v) =M_(T) cos θ=I_(t)A_(t) cos θ  [2] where

-   -   I_(t)=the current in the transmitter coil,     -   A_(t)=the cross-sectional area of the transmitter coil, and     -   θ=the relative dip angle (the angle between the tool axis and         the normal to the formation).         As shown by Luling, M. G., “Processing and Modeling 2-MHz         Resistivity Tools in Dipping, Laminated, Anisotropic         Formations,” SPWLA 35th Annual Logging Symposium, Jun. 19-22,         1994, the HMD produces magnetic fields H_(hx) and H_(hz), and         the VMD produces magnetic fields H_(vx) and H_(vz) as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {H_{hx} = {\frac{M_{T}\sin\;\theta}{4\pi}\left( {{\frac{{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}}{L^{3}}\begin{bmatrix} {{3\;\sin^{2}\theta} - 1 + {k_{h}^{2}L^{2}\cos^{2}\theta} +} \\ {\frac{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}{\sin^{2}\theta} + {{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L} - {3{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\sin^{2}\theta}} \end{bmatrix}} - {\frac{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}}{\sin^{2}\theta}{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\beta}}} \right){\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}}} & \lbrack 3\rbrack \\ {H_{hz} = {\frac{M_{T}\cos\;\theta}{4\pi}\left( {\frac{{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}}{L^{3}}\begin{bmatrix} {{3\;\cos\;\theta\;\sin\;\theta} - {k_{h}^{2}L^{2}\cos\;\theta\;\sin\;\theta} -} \\ {3{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\cos\;{\theta sin}\;\theta} \end{bmatrix}} \right)}} & \lbrack 4\rbrack \\ {H_{vx} = {\frac{M_{T}\sin\;\theta}{4\pi}\left( {\frac{{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}}{L^{3}}\begin{bmatrix} {{3\;\cos\;\theta\;\sin\;\theta} - {k_{h}^{2}L^{2}\cos\;\theta\;\sin\;\theta} -} \\ {3{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\cos\;{\theta sin}\;\theta} \end{bmatrix}} \right)}} & \lbrack 5\rbrack \\ {H_{vz} = {\frac{M_{T}\cos\;\theta}{4\pi}\left( {\frac{{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}}{L^{3}}\begin{bmatrix} {{3\;\cos^{2}\theta} - 1 + {k_{h}^{2}L^{2}\sin^{2}\theta} -} \\ {{3{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\cos^{2}\theta} + {{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}} \end{bmatrix}} \right)}} & \lbrack 6\rbrack \end{matrix}$ where

$k_{h} = \sqrt{\omega^{2}{\mu\left( {ɛ_{h} - \frac{{\mathbb{i}}\;\sigma_{h}}{\omega}} \right)}}$ $k_{v} = \sqrt{\omega^{2}{\mu\left( {ɛ_{v} - \frac{{\mathbb{i}\sigma}_{v}}{\omega}} \right)}}$ $\beta = \sqrt{{\cos^{2}\theta} + {\left( \frac{k_{v}}{k_{h}} \right)^{2}\sin^{2}\theta}}$

k_(h)=the complex wave number in the horizontal direction

k_(v)=the complex wave number in the vertical direction

ω=the angular frequency (in radians/second) of the transmitter coil=2πf

f=the frequency of the transmitter coil (in Hertz)

μ=the magnetic permeability of the formation (assume μ=μ_(air)=1)

σ_(h)=the horizontal conductivity of the formation

σ_(v)=the vertical conductivity of the formation

ε_(h)=the horizontal dielectric constant (assumed)

ε_(v)=the vertical dielectric constant (assumed)

L=the distance between the transmitter coil and the receiver coil

i=√{square root over (−1)}

If a receiver is parallel to the transmitter, for a conventional configuration as shown in FIG. 5 in which ξ_(T)=ξ_(R)=90°, the H_(z) field in the receiver loop is given by the equation H _(z)=(H _(hx) +H _(vx))sin θ+(H _(vz) +H _(hz))cos θ  [7] and the induced voltage in the receiver loop is V=iωA_(r)μH_(z)  [8] where A_(r) is the cross-sectional area of the receiver coil. Substituting Eqs. [3], [4], [5], [6], and [7] into Eq. [8] yields

$\begin{matrix} {V = {\frac{{\mathbb{i}\omega}\; A_{r}\mu\; I_{t}A_{t}}{4\pi\; L^{3}}\left( {{\left\lbrack {2 - {{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}} \right\rbrack{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}} - {{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\beta}}} \right)}} & \lbrack 9\rbrack \end{matrix}$ Equation [9] shows that the induced voltage, V, depends on k_(h) and β. In turn, k_(h) depends on σ_(h); and β depends on σ_(h), σ_(v), and θ. These relationships indicate that σ_(v) and θ are dependent, and this dependency prevents convergence of a simultaneous solution for σ_(h), σ_(v), and θ, as discussed above.

To break this dependency and enable a solution for σ_(h), σ_(v), and θ, the present inventor discovered that one may tilt either the transmitter or the receiver with respect to the tool axis, as shown in FIG. 6 (transmitter not tilted, receiver tilted). For a transmitter/receiver configuration as shown in FIG. 6 in which ξ_(T)=90° and ξ_(R)<90°, the H_(z) field in the receiver loop is given by the equation H _(z)=(H _(hx) +H _(vx))sin θ′+(H _(vz) +H _(hz))cos θ′  [10] Substitution of Eqs. [3], [4], [5], [6], and [10] into Eq. [8] yields

$\begin{matrix} {V = {\frac{{\mathbb{i}}\;\omega\; A_{r}\mu\; I_{t}A_{t}}{4\pi\; L^{3}}\begin{pmatrix} {{{+ \left\lbrack {{2\;\sin\;{\theta sin\theta}^{\prime}} + {2\;\cos\;{\theta cos}\;\theta^{\prime}}} \right\rbrack}{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}} -} \\ {{\left\lbrack {{2{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\sin\;{\theta sin}\;\theta^{\prime}} - {2{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\cos\;{\theta cos}\;\theta^{\prime}}} \right\rbrack{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}} +} \\ {{{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\frac{\sin\;\theta^{\prime}}{\sin\;\theta}{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L}} - {{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\frac{\sin\;\theta^{\prime}}{\sin\;\theta}{\mathbb{e}}^{{\mathbb{i}}\; k_{h}L\;\beta}}}\;} \end{pmatrix}}} & \lbrack 11\rbrack \end{matrix}$ where θ′=θ+ξ_(R)−90°

-   -   ξ_(R)=the angle of tilt of the receiver antenna (i.e., the angle         between the plane of the receiver antenna and the tool axis)     -   ξ_(T)=the angle of tilt of the transmitter antenna (i.e., the         angle between the plane of the transmitter antenna and the tool         axis).         Equation [11] shows that the induced voltage, V, depends on         k_(h), β, θ, and θ′. As long as θ is different from θ′, then θ         can be calculated from three measurements using a multiple         spacing or multiple frequency electromagnetic wave resistivity         tool. By tilting either the receiver or the transmitter of an         electromagnetic wave resistivity sensor (i.e., by making θ         different from θ′), σ_(v) and θ are decoupled, which enables a         solution for σ_(h), σ_(v), and θ as described below. Although         the above formulation is for an untilted transmitter with a         tilted receiver, the theory of reciprocity provides that the         same result also applies to a tilted transmitter with an         untilted receiver. Indeed, both the transmitter and the receiver         may be tilted, provided that the respective angles of tilt are         not the same, i.e., ξ_(T)≠ξ_(R). For the general case in which         both the transmitter and the receiver are tilted at arbitrary         angles ξ_(T) and ξ_(R), respectively, Eqs. [1] through [11]         apply with the substitution of θ″ for θ, where θ″=θ+ξ_(T)−90°.         FIG. 7 illustrates several possible transmitter/receiver pair         combinations in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 8 illustrates the process of obtaining the horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity, and relative dip angle of an earth formation in accordance with the present invention. Although the diagram of FIG. 8 shows horizontal and vertical conductivity rather than horizontal and vertical resistivity, persons reasonably skilled in the art understand that conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity, and either conductivity or resistivity may be used to refer to the essential electrical property of an earth formation. The solution process begins with an initialization of the three parameters for which a solution is sought, namely, horizontal conductivity (σ_(h)), vertical conductivity (σ_(v)), and relative dip angle (θ). As shown in FIG. 8, σ_(h) and σ_(v) may conveniently be initialized to the reciprocals of the measured resistivity values (measured log) as obtained from two of the three transmitter/receiver combinations according to methods well known in the art. Specifically, for each transmitter/receiver combination, the transmitter is pulsed and the phase shift (Φ) and amplitude attenuation (A) of the receiver pair are measured. Then, using data such as that represented in FIGS. 10 and 11, the amplitude attenuation resistivity and phase shift resistivity, respectively, are obtained. The phase shift resistivities provide preferred initial estimates for σ_(h) and σ_(v), but the amplitude attenuation resistivities could also be used. Similarly, a convenient initial estimate for θ is 60°, which is within the range in which anisotropy typically becomes evident. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that these preferred values for the initial parameter estimates serve the purpose of convenience to enhance the convergence of a solution. However, these particular values are not essential to the success of this invention, and the initial parameter estimates may be arbitrary.

Still referring to FIG. 8, after the parameters are initialized, these parameters are used to calculate theoretical “induced” voltages, V₁ and V₂, in receivers R₁ and R₂, respectively, for each transmitter according to Eq. [11]. Next, the calculated voltages are used to obtain computed resistivities R_(c) ₁ , R_(c) ₂ , and R_(c) ₃ (computed log) corresponding to each transmitter/receiver pair combination, respectively. Again, the computed resistivities are obtained according to methods well known in the art using data such as that shown in FIGS. 10 and 11, and the phase shift resistivities are preferred over the amplitude attenuation resistivities. The computed resistivities are then compared to the measured resistivities, and the difference between the computed resistivities and the measured resistivities is used to form a suitable error measurement. If the magnitude of the error is less than or equal to an allowable error value, E_(allow), then the current values for σ_(h), σ_(v), and θ are taken to be the solution. Otherwise, the values for σ_(h), σ_(v), and θ are incremented in an iterative optimization routine until the error is within the allowable error value. Any suitable optimization routine may be used, such as a least squares method. A preferred optimization method is the Levenberg-Marquardt method discussed by Tianfei Zhu and Larry D. Brown, “Two-dimensional Velocity Inversion and Synthetic Seismogram Computation,” Geophysics, vol. 52, no. 1, January 1987, p. 37-50, which is incorporated herein by reference.

Although the foregoing specific details describe a preferred embodiment of this invention, persons reasonably skilled in the art of petroleum well drilling and logging will recognize that various changes may be made in the details of the method and apparatus of this invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. Therefore, it should be understood that this invention is not to be limited to the specific details shown and described herein. 

1. A logging while drilling tool, comprising: a tool body configured to couple into a drill string, the tool body having a longitudinal tool axis; a first transmitter antenna extending circumferentially in a first cutout around the tool body, the first transmitter antenna configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation surrounding a borehole when the tool is used in a logging while drilling operation; a first receiver antenna extending circumferentially in a second cutout around the tool body, the first receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic signal from the formation that is a result of the electromagnetic wave from the transmitter antenna, wherein at least one of the first transmitter antenna and the first receiver antenna extends in a plane that is orthogonal to said tool axis, and wherein at least one of the first transmitter antenna and the first receiver antenna extends in a plane that is not orthogonal to said tool axis; and processing circuitry operably coupled to receive a first input signal resulting from receipt of said electromagnetic signal at the first receiver antenna, the processing circuitry configured to determine at least one formation property in response to said input signal.
 2. The logging while drilling tool of claim 1, further comprising: a second transmitter antenna extending circumferentially around the tool body; and a second receiver antenna extending circumferentially around the tool body.
 3. The logging while drilling tool of claim 1, wherein the processing circuitry comprises a microprocessor.
 4. The logging while drilling tool of claim 1, wherein the at least one formation property comprises a relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to the borehole.
 5. The logging while drilling tool of claim 4, wherein the relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to the borehole comprises a relative dip angle.
 6. The logging while drilling tool of claim 1, further comprising: a protective covering over the first transmitter antenna; and a protective covering over the first receiver antenna.
 7. A formation resistivity logging tool configured to evaluate the resistivity of an earth formation during a drilling operation, comprising: a tool body having a longitudinal tool axis and an outer surface, the tool body configured for coupling in a drill string; transmitter circuitry supported by the tool body; a first transmitter antenna surrounding the tool body and extending in a first plane oriented at a first angle relative to the tool axis, the first transmitter antenna operably coupled to the transmitter circuitry and configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation; a first receiver antenna surrounding the outer surface of the tool body and extending in a second plane oriented at a second angle relative to the tool axis, the first receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic wave from the earth formation that is a result of the electromagnetic wave from the first transmitter antenna and to provide a first antenna output signal in response thereto, wherein at least one of the first plane and second plane is orthogonal to the tool axis, and wherein at least one of the first plane and second plane is not orthogonal to the tool axis; and processing circuitry operably coupled to the first receiver antenna to receive the first antenna output signal, the processing circuitry configured to determine at least one formation property at least partially in reference to the first antenna output signal.
 8. The formation resistivity logging tool of claim 7, further comprising: a second transmitter antenna surrounding the tool body and extending in a plane oriented at the first angle relative to the tool axis, the first transmitter antenna operably coupled to the transmitter circuitry and configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation; a second receiver antenna surrounding the outer surface of the tool body and extending in a third plane oriented at a third angle relative to the tool axis, the second receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic signal from the earth formation that is a result of the electromagnetic wave from the second transmitter antenna and to provide a second antenna output signal in response thereto, and wherein the second receiver antenna is in non-parallel relation to the first receiver antenna.
 9. The formation resistivity logging tool of claim 8, wherein the processing circuitry is further operably coupled to the second receiver antenna to receive the second antenna output signal, and is further configured to determine said at least one formation property partially in reference to the second antenna output signal.
 10. The formation resistivity logging tool of claim 7, wherein the processing circuitry comprises a microprocessor.
 11. A method of evaluating the resistivity of an earth formation during a drilling operation through use of a drill string, comprising the acts of: providing a resistivity logging tool for incorporation into the drill string, the resistivity logging tool comprising, a tool body having a longitudinal axis first and second transmitter antennas extending around the tool body, first and second receiver antennas extending around the tool body, and processing circuitry including a microprocessor, wherein at least one of the first and second transmitter antennas has a magnetic moment that is aligned with the longitudinal axis of the resistivity logging tool, and wherein each of said first and second receiver antennas has a respective magnetic moment that is tilted relative to the longitudinal axis of the resistivity logging tool; during the drilling operation, transmitting a first electromagnetic wave into the earth formation through use of at least the first transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation that is a result of said electromagnetic wave being transmitted into the earth formation through use of at least the first receiver antenna; also during the drilling operation, transmitting a second electromagnetic wave into the formation through use of the second transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation that is a result of the second electromagnetic wave being transmitted into the earth formation through use of at least the second receiver antenna; using said processing circuitry to evaluate a parameter of the earth formation in reference to the received electromagnetic energy at the first and second receiver antennas.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein said magnetic moments of each of said first and second receiver antennas are tilted at different angles relative to the longitudinal axis of the logging tool.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the evaluated parameter of the earth formation comprises the proximity of a bed boundary through which the borehole extends.
 14. A method of determining a parameter of earth formations during a drilling operation, comprising the acts of: providing a resistivity logging tool configured for incorporation into a drill string, the logging tool comprising, a tool body having a longitudinal axis, at least first, second, third and fourth transmitter antennas extending around the tool body, at least first and second receiver antennas extending around the tool body, and processing circuitry including a microprocessor, wherein at least one of said transmitter antennas and receiver antennas has a magnetic moment aligned with the longitudinal axis of the tool body, and wherein at least one of said transmitter antennas and receiver antennas has a magnetic moment that is tilted relative to the longitudinal axis of the tool body; during the drilling operation, transmitting an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation through use of the first transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation through use of at least the first receiver antenna; also during the drilling operation, transmitting a second electromagnetic wave into the earth formation through use of the second transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation through use of at least the second receiver antenna; and using said processing circuitry to evaluate at least one parameter of the earth formation in reference to the received electromagnetic energy at the first and second receiver antennas.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the at least one parameter of the earth formation comprises a relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to a borehole.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to the borehole comprises a relative dip angle.
 17. A logging while drilling tool, the tool comprising: a tool body defining a tool axis; at least a first transmitter antenna extending around a portion of the tool body, wherein the transmitter antenna is configured to generate a magnetic moment along a line that intersects the tool axis at a first angle, and is further configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into a formation when the tool is in a borehole; at least a first receiver antenna extending around a portion of the tool body, the first receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic wave from the formation, wherein the receiver antenna has its maximum magnetic moment sensitivity along a line that intersects the tool axis at a second angle, wherein the first and second angles are unequal, and wherein one of the first and second angles is 0°; a covering over the first transmitter antenna; a covering over the first receiver antenna; and processor circuitry coupled to receive a signal from the at least one receiver antenna, and configured to determine at least one formation measurement at least partially in response to said signal.
 18. The logging while drilling tool of claim 17, wherein the at least one formation measurement comprises at least one of a complex voltage, an amplitude ratio, and a phase difference.
 19. The logging while drilling tool of claim 17, wherein the formation measurement is determined with reference to the electromagnetic wave from the transmitter antenna.
 20. The logging while drilling tool of claim 17, wherein the processor calculates vertical and horizontal resistivity of the formation.
 21. The logging while drilling tool of claim 17, further comprising a second transmitter antenna oriented at the first angle relative to the tool axis, and configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into the formation.
 22. A method of determining an indication of a formation property through use of a logging tool coupled in a drill string, comprising: sending an electromagnetic wave from a transmitter antenna into a formation, wherein the transmitter antenna is a loop antenna mounted in a cutout in the logging tool and extending around the longitudinal axis of the logging tool, and placed so as to have a magnetic moment extending along a line that intersects the tool axis at a first angle; receiving an electromagnetic wave from the formation with a receiver antenna, wherein the receiver antenna is a loop antenna mounted in a cutout in the logging tool and extending around the axis of the logging tool, and placed so as to have its maximum magnetic moment sensitivity along a line that intersects the tool axis at a second angle, wherein the first and second angles are different, and with at least one of said first and second angles being approximately 0°; and processing said received electromagnetic wave in the logging tool to determine an indication of at least one formation property based at least in part on the received electromagnetic wave.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the at least one formation property comprises a relative dip angle of the formation.
 24. A logging while drilling tool, comprising: a tool body configured to couple into a drill string, the tool body having a longitudinal tool axis; a first transmitter antenna extending circumferentially in a first cutout around the tool body, the first transmitter antenna configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation surrounding a borehole when the tool is used in a logging while drilling operation; a first receiver antenna extending circumferentially in a second cutout around the tool body, the first receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic signal from the formation that is a result of the electromagnetic wave from the transmitter antenna, and wherein the first transmitter antenna and the first receiver antenna extend in planes having different orientation angles relative to said tool axis, said orientation angles having different magnitudes; and processing circuitry operably coupled to receive a first input signal resulting from receipt of said electromagnetic signal at the first receiver antenna, the processing circuitry configured to determine at least one formation property in response to said input signal.
 25. The logging while drilling tool of claim 24, further comprising: a second transmitter antenna extending circumferentially around the tool body; and a second receiver antenna extending circumferentially around the tool body.
 26. The logging while drilling tool of claim 24, wherein the processing circuitry comprises a microprocessor.
 27. The logging while drilling tool of claim 24, wherein the at least one formation property comprises a relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to the borehole.
 28. The logging while drilling tool of claim 27, wherein the relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to the borehole comprises a relative dip angle.
 29. The logging while drilling tool of claim 24, further comprising: a protective covering over the first transmitter antenna; and a protective covering over the first receiver antenna.
 30. A formation resistivity logging tool configured to evaluate the resistivity of an earth formation during a drilling operation, comprising: a tool body having a longitudinal tool axis and an outer surface, the tool body configured for coupling in a drill string; transmitter circuitry supported by the tool body; a first transmitter antenna surrounding the tool body and oriented at a first angle relative to the tool axis, the first transmitter antenna operably coupled to the transmitter circuitry and configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation; a first receiver antenna surrounding the outer surface of the tool body and oriented at a second angle relative to the tool axis, the first receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic wave from the earth formation that is a result of the electromagnetic wave from the first transmitter antenna and to provide a first antenna output signal in response thereto, and wherein said first angle has a different absolute value than said second angle; and processing circuitry operably coupled to the first receiver antenna to receive the first antenna output signal, the processing circuitry configured to determine at least one formation property at least partially in reference to the first antenna output signal.
 31. The formation resistivity logging tool of claim 30, further comprising: a second transmitter antenna surrounding the tool body and oriented at the first angle relative to the tool axis, the first transmitter antenna operably coupled to the transmitter circuitry and configured to transmit an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation; a second receiver antenna surrounding the outer surface of the tool body and oriented at a third angle relative to the tool axis, the second receiver antenna configured to receive an electromagnetic signal from the earth formation that is a result of the electromagnetic wave from the second transmitter antenna and to provide a second antenna output signal in response thereto, and wherein the second receiver antenna is in non-parallel relation to the first receiver antenna.
 32. The formation resistivity logging tool of claim 31, wherein the processing circuitry is further operably coupled to the second receiver antenna to receive the second antenna output signal, and is further configured to determine said at least one formation property partially in reference to the second antenna output signal.
 33. The formation resistivity logging tool of claim 30, wherein the processing circuitry comprises a microprocessor.
 34. A method of evaluating the resistivity of an earth formation during a drilling operation through use of a drill string, comprising the acts of: providing a resistivity logging tool for incorporation into the drill string, the resistivity logging tool comprising, a tool body having a longitudinal axis first and second transmitter antennas extending around the tool body, first and second receiver antennas extending around the tool body, and processing circuitry including a microprocessor, wherein said first transmitter antenna has a magnetic moment tilted at first angle relative to the longitudinal axis of the resistivity logging tool, wherein said first receiver antenna has a magnetic moment tilted at a second angle relative to the longitudinal axis of the resistivity logging tool, and wherein the magnitude of the first angle is different from the magnitude of the second angle; during the drilling operation, transmitting a first electromagnetic wave into the earth formation through use of at least the first transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation that is a result of said electromagnetic wave being transmitted into the earth formation through use of at least the first receiver antenna; also during the drilling operation, transmitting a second electromagnetic wave into the formation through use of the second transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation that is a result of the second electromagnetic wave being transmitted into the earth formation through use of at least the second receiver antenna; using said processing circuitry to evaluate a parameter of the earth formation in reference to the received electromagnetic energy at the first and second receiver antennas.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said magnetic moments of each of said first and second receiver antennas are tilted at different angles relative to the longitudinal axis of the logging tool.
 36. The method of claim 34, wherein the evaluated parameter of the earth formation comprises the proximity of a bed boundary through which the borehole extends.
 37. A method of determining a parameter of earth formations during a drilling operation, comprising the acts of: providing a resistivity logging tool configured for incorporation into a drill string, the logging tool comprising, a tool body having a longitudinal axis, at least first, second, third and fourth transmitter antennas extending around the tool body, at least first and second receiver antennas extending around the tool body, and processing circuitry including a microprocessor, wherein each of said first and second receiver antennas has a magnetic moment that is tilted relative to the longitudinal axis of the tool body, and wherein said first transmitter antenna is tilted relative to the longitudinal axis at an angle having a different absolute value than a tilt angle of said first receiver antenna; during the drilling operation, transmitting an electromagnetic wave into an earth formation through use of the first transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation through use of at least the first receiver antenna; also during the drilling operation, transmitting a second electromagnetic wave into the earth formation through use of the second transmitter antenna, and receiving electromagnetic energy from the earth formation through use of at least the second receiver antenna; and using said processing circuitry to evaluate at least one parameter of the earth formation in reference to the received electromagnetic energy at the first and second receiver antennas.
 38. The method of claim 37, wherein the at least one parameter of the earth formation comprises a relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to a borehole.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the relative orientation of a subsurface formation boundary to the borehole comprises a relative dip angle. 